ENG-GRAMMAR (NOTES)

NOTES

27 October 2025 by

FAIJUL HASAN

ENGLISH GRAMMAR NOTES

1. Noun

Definition: A noun names a person, place, thing, idea, or event.

Types:

Proper noun — names a specific person/place (e.g., Ravi, Mumbai, India).
Common noun — general name (e.g., boy, city, car).
Concrete noun — can be sensed (e.g., apple, dog).
Abstract noun — idea/quality (e.g., love, freedom).
Collective noun — group as one (e.g., team, herd).
How to spot: Ask Who? What? Where? — answers are often nouns.
Example: The teacher wrote on the blackboard.

Definition: A word that replaces a noun to avoid repetition.

Types & examples:

Personal: I, you, he, she, it, we, they
Possessive: my, your, his, her, our, their
Reflexive: myself, yourself, themselves
Relative: who, which, that (link clauses)
Demonstrative: this, that, these, those
Interrogative: who, whom, which, what (ask questions)
Indefinite: someone, anyone, nobody, few
Spotting tip: If a word stands in for a noun and points to someone/something, it’s a pronoun.
Example: Sita lost her book. She looked everywhere.

Definition: Shows action or a state of being. It’s the “doing” or “being” word.

Types & important ideas:

Main (lexical) verbs: run, eat, write.
Auxiliary verbs (helping): be, have, do used with main verbs (e.g., is running, has eaten).
Modal verbs: can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must (show ability, permission, obligation).
Transitive (needs an object): She reads books.
Intransitive (no object): He sleeps.
Regular vs Irregular: Regular makes past with -ed (walk → walked); irregular varies (go → went).
Tenses: past, present, future (plus continuous, perfect forms).
Spotting tip: Ask What is happening? or What is/was/will be done?
Example: They are building a house. (auxiliary + main)

Definition: Describes or modifies a noun/pronoun (gives more info).

Types & examples:

Descriptive: big, blue, happy
Quantitative: some, many, few, three
Demonstrative (adjective use): this book, those apples
Possessive adjectives: my, your, his (when before a noun)
Interrogative adjectives: which, what, whose (when before a noun)
Position: Usually before the noun (a green shirt) or after linking verbs (She is nice).
Spotting tip: If it answers Which? What kind? How many? it’s likely an adjective.
Example: A small, old house.

Definition: Modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb — it tells how, when, where, how often, or to what extent.

Types & examples:

Manner: slowly, carefully (how)
Place: here, there, everywhere (where)
Time: now, yesterday, soon (when)
Frequency: always, never, often (how often)
Degree: very, quite, almost (to what extent)
Purpose: to that end / so (less common as single words)
Spotting tip: Many adverbs end in -ly but not all (very, soon, here). They answer How? When? Where? How often?
Example: He ran quickly. She is very smart.

Definition: Connects words, phrases, or clauses.

Types:

Coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (FANBOYS) — join equal parts.
- I wanted tea but he preferred coffee.
Subordinating conjunctions: because, although, if, when, since, while — introduce dependent clauses.
- I stayed home because it rained.
Correlative conjunctions: pairs like either...or, neither...nor, both...and, not only...but also.
- Either you study or you fail.
  Spotting tip: If it links clauses or items, it’s a conjunction.

Definition: A type of adjective that introduces a noun. In English there are two kinds:

Definite article: the — refers to a specific item. (the book on the table)
Indefinite articles: a, an — refer to any one, non-specific item. (a book, an apple)
Rule of a/an: use a before consonant sounds (a cat), an before vowel sounds (an orange, an hour).
Spotting tip: If a small word (a/an/the) comes just before a singular/plural noun phrase, it’s likely an article/determiner.

Definition: Marks that organize and clarify writing. Below are the main ones and rules:

Period (.) — ends a declarative sentence. I like mangoes.
Question mark (?) — ends a direct question. Where are you?
Exclamation mark (!) — strong feeling or command. Stop!
Comma (,) — separates items in a list, clauses, or adds pauses. She bought apples, bananas, and oranges. Use commas after introductory words/phrases and to set off nonessential clauses.
Semicolon (;) — connects closely related independent clauses or separates complex list items. I like tea; he prefers coffee.
Colon (:) — introduces a list, quotation, or explanation. Bring: pen, paper, ruler.
Apostrophe (’) — shows possession (Ravi’s bike) or forms contractions (don’t). Not for plurals.
Quotation marks (“ ”) — show direct speech or quotations. She said, “Come here.”
Parentheses ( ) — add extra, nonessential information. He arrived (late as usual).
Dash (—) — adds emphasis or an abrupt break. He knew one thing—failure wasn’t an option.
Ellipsis (…) — indicates omitted text or a trailing off. She began to say…
Spotting tip: Read sentences aloud; punctuation often marks natural pauses or sentence boundaries.

Identify the part of speech: “She quickly opened the red box.”
Which word is the conjunction? “I wanted to go, but I was sick.”
Choose the correct article: “___ hour passed.”
What punctuation is needed? He said I will come tomorrow
Identify pronoun type: “This is the book that I told you about.” (what is that?)

She = pronoun, quickly = adverb, opened = verb, the = article, red = adjective, box = noun.
but (coordinating conjunction).
an hour (hour begins with a vowel sound).
Add comma and quotation marks for direct speech: He said, “I will come tomorrow.” (or He said, “I will come tomorrow.”) You could also use a period if reporting: He said he would come tomorrow.
that = relative pronoun (introduces relative clause “that I told you about”).

in Xth

10th Exercise Solution (MATHS)